Supplementary Files
Keywords
Depression
Pregnant Women
Violence Against Women
Southern Punjab
Pakistan
How to Cite
Abstract
Objective: To determine the prevalence of prenatal depression and investigate its associated socioeconomic, demographic, physical, and psychological characteristics among pregnant women in Southern Punjab, Pakistan.
Methodology: This cross-sectional study on prenatal depression was conducted from October 2024 to March 2025 in South Punjab tertiary care hospitals. The Edinburgh Postnatal Depression Scale (EPDS) with a cutoff of 11 was used to measure depression. Chi-square test was employed to identify significant associations (p < 0.05) between prenatal depression and various characteristics on SPSS 27.
Results: This study of 350 pregnant women in South Punjab found a high prevalence of prenatal depression (56.3% with a mean EPDS score of 11.61). Significant associations with depression (p < 0.05) included respondents' employment status (housewives higher), lower monthly income, husband's employment type (non-business higher), having children with special needs, experiencing husband's violence, feeling sad about the pregnancy, and experiencing pressure for a baby boy.
Conclusion: In conclusion, this study reveals that prenatal depression is linked to socioeconomic disadvantages (unemployment, lower income, husband's occupation), negative social experiences (husband's violence, pressure for a boy, negative attitudes), and pregnancy-related factors (having a child with special needs, negative feelings about the pregnancy).
References
Prabhu S, Guruvare S, George LS, Nayak BS, Mayya S. Prevalence and associated risk factors of antenatal depression among pregnant women attending tertiary care hospitals in South India. Depression research and treatment. 2022;2022(1):9127358. https://doi.org/10.1155/2022/9127358
Liu X, Wang S, Wang G. Prevalence and risk factors of postpartum depression in women: a systematic review and meta‐analysis. Journal of Clinical Nursing. 2022 Oct;31(19-20):2665-77. https://doi.org/10.1111/jocn.16121
Bedaso A, Adams J, Peng W, Sibbritt D. The relationship between social support and mental health problems during pregnancy: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Reproductive health. 2021 Dec;18:1-23. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12978-021-01209-5
Kaiyo-Utete M, Dambi JM, Chingono A, Mazhandu FS, Madziro-Ruwizhu TB, Henderson C, Magwali T, Langhaug L, Chirenje ZM. Antenatal depression: an examination of prevalence and its associated factors among pregnant women attending Harare polyclinics. BMC Pregnancy and Childbirth. 2020 Dec;20:1-8. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12884-020-02887-y
Hong SA, Buntup D. Maternal depression during pregnancy and postpartum period among the Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN) countries: a scoping review. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health. 2023 Mar 12;20(6):5023. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph20065023
Mitchell AR, Gordon H, Atkinson J, Lindquist A, Walker SP, Middleton A, Tong S, Hastie R. Prevalence of perinatal anxiety and related disorders in low-and middle-income countries: a systematic review and meta-analysis. JAMA Network Open. 2023 Nov 1;6(11):e2343711-. https://doi.org/10.1001/jamanetworkopen.2023.43711
Dadi AF, Miller ER, Woodman RJ, Azale T, Mwanri L. Effect of perinatal depression on risk of adverse infant health outcomes in mother-infant dyads in Gondar town: a causal analysis. BMC Pregnancy and Childbirth. 2021 Dec;21:1-1. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12884-021-03733-5
Savard J, Pauck Bernhardsen G, Mykkänen A, Keski-Nisula L, Lehto SM. The association between gestational diabetes and fear of childbirth: a longitudinal register study. BMC Pregnancy and Childbirth. 2024 Dec 18;24(1):814.
https://doi.org/10.1186/s12884-024-07022-9
Padhani ZA, Salam RA, Rahim KA, Naz S, Zulfiqar A, Ali Memon Z, Meherali S, Atif M, Lassi ZS. Prevalence and risk factors of perinatal depression among mothers and fathers in Pakistan: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Health Psychology and Behavioral Medicine. 2024 Dec 31;12(1):2383468. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12884-024-07022-9
Yaqoob N, Arshid M, Jabbar Z, Fatima K. Sadness along with happiness: depression and satisfaction with life among postpartum women in Faisalabad. Health psychology research. 2021 Jan 12;8(3):8960. https://doi.org/10.4081/hpr.2020.8960
Waqas A, Sikander S, Malik A, Atif N, Karyotaki E, Rahman A. Predicting remission among perinatal women with depression in Rural Pakistan: a prognostic model for task-shared interventions in primary care settings. Journal of personalized medicine. 2022 Jun 27;12(7):1046. https://doi.org/10.3390/jpm12071046
Khan R, Waqas A, Mustehsan ZH, Khan AS, Sikander S, Ahmad I, Jamil A, Sharif M, Bilal S, Zulfiqar S, Bibi A. Predictors of prenatal depression: a cross-sectional study in rural Pakistan. Frontiers in Psychiatry. 2021 Sep 10;12:584287. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyt.2021.584287
Padhani ZA, Salam RA, Rahim KA, Naz S, Zulfiqar A, Ali Memon Z, Meherali S, Atif M, Lassi ZS. Prevalence and risk factors of perinatal depression among mothers and fathers in Pakistan: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Health Psychology and Behavioral Medicine. 2024 Dec 31;12(1):2383468. https://doi.org/10.1080/21642850.2024.2383468
Zia E, Tariq A, Ayub F, Khan TM, Bukhsh A, Suleiman AK, Baig MR, Ahmed S, Dar HI, Asghar A, Khalid L. Association of Gestational Iron-deficiency Anemia with Antenatal Depression among Pregnant Women: A Case–control Study from Tertiary Care Hospitals, Lahore. Journal of Research in Pharmacy Practice. 2024 Jan 1;13(1):7-13.
https://doi.org/10.4103/jrpp.jrpp_15_24
Kamal R, Inayat A, Khan R, Mushtaq A, Masoom K. Prevalence, Awareness, and Help-Seeking Behavior Regarding Antenatal Depression Among Pregnant Women in Quetta: A Cross-Sectional Study. Journal of Health, Wellness and Community Research. 2025 Mar 30:1-6.
Dadi AF, Miller ER, Woodman R, Bisetegn TA, Mwanri L. Antenatal depression and its potential causal mechanisms among pregnant mothers in Gondar town: application of structural equation model. BMC pregnancy and childbirth. 2020 Dec;20:1-5. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12884-020-02859-2
Gao, L., Qu, J., & Wang, A. Y. (2020). Anxiety, depression and social support in pregnant women with a history of recurrent miscarriage: a cross- sectional study. Journal of reproductive and infant psychology, 38(5), 497-508. https://doi.org/10.1080/02646838.2019.1652730
Chen Z, Li Y, Chen J, Guo X. The mediating role of coping styles in the relationship between perceived social support and antenatal depression among pregnant women: a cross-sectional study. BMC pregnancy and childbirth. 2022 Mar 8;22(1):188. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12884-022-04377-9
Sahoo S, Gill G, Sikka P, Nehra R. Antenatal depression and anxiety in Indian women: a systematic review. Industrial psychiatry journal. 2023 Jul 1;32(2):222-33. https://doi.org/10.4103/ipj.ipj_156_22
Babu GR, Murthy GV, Singh N, Nath A, Rathnaiah M, Saldanha N, et al. Sociodemographic and medical risk factors associated with antepartum depression. Frontiers in public health. 2018 May 2;6:127. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpubh.2018.00127
Míguez MC, Vázquez MB. Risk factors for antenatal depression: A review. World journal of psychiatry. 2021 Jul 19;11(7):325. https://doi.org/10.5498/wjp.v11.i7.325
Jyothi Kantipudi S, Kannan GK, Viswanathan S, Ranganathan S, Menon J, Ramanathan S. Antenatal depression and generalized anxiety disorder in a tertiary hospital in South India. Indian Journal of Psychological Medicine. 2020 Nov;42(6):513-8. https://doi.org/10.1177/0253717620928440
Nisarga V, Anupama M, Madhu KN. Social and obstetric risk factors of antenatal depression: A cross-sectional study from South-India. Asian journal of psychiatry. 2022 Jun 1;72:103063. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ajp.2022.103063
Tobe H, Kita S, Hayashi M, Umeshita K, Kamibeppu K. Mediating effect of resilience during pregnancy on the association between maternal trait anger and postnatal depression. Comprehensive Psychiatry. 2020 Oct 1;102:152190. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.comppsych.2020.152190
Hajnasiri H, Moafi F, Nami M, Safaralinezhad A. Sexual dysfunction and its related factors among pregnant women referred to health centers in Qazvin, Iran. Asian Journal of Social Health and Behavior. 2020 Jan 1;3(1):27-34. https://doi.org/10.4103/SHB.SHB_5_20.
This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 International License.
Copyright (c) 2025 Ghazal Farrukh, Sana Shaukat Siddiqui, Alisha Shaukat, Amna Waqar, Saira Hafeez, Maham Qureshi